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Presocratic Philosophy EssayAlthough Aristotles recitement is excessively slight to serve as a sure foundation for judgment, it seems more likely that Thales was arguing for the broader straw gay of life forces in the world than most people imagined, rather than that the actual in its totality is alive. Anaximander Thales young contemporary from Miletus, Anaximander, born toward the end of the seventh blow B. C. E. , found the explanatory formula of subjects in what he called the apeiron, a word that might be translated as the indefinite, the boundless, or both. This opens up the possibility that the apeiron is both boundlessly large in its temporal and physical extent and also qualitatively indefinite in that it is without measurable inner boundaries. The apeiron is further describe, according to Aristotle, as being without beginning, surrounding all things, steering all things, divine, immortal, and indestructible. almost have inferred that Anaximanders b arly conc ealed purpose was Western philosophys first elbow grease at demythologization.Equally striking is Anaximanders description of the universe as a closed, concentric system, the outmost spheres of which, by their everlasting trend, account for the stability of our earth, a drum-shaped body held everlastingly in a state of equipoise at the center. Whatever the inadequacy in certain details (the stars atomic number 18 placed hot to the earth than the moon), with Anaximander the science of cosmological systemal speculation took a giant step forward. As far as life on earth is concerned, Anaximander offered an some different striking hypothesis.The first living things, according to him, were born in moisture, enclosed in thorny barks (like sea urchins), and as their age increased, they came forth onto the drier part (as phrased by Aetius first to second century C. E. ). Pythagoras Although we fuck that Pythagoras was a historical figure, it is difficult to determine exactly what Pyt hagoras himself taught. He wrote nada, and the ideas of other members of the community were attributed to him as a sign of respect and as a way of lending clog to the ideas.Plato and Aristotle rarely assign ideas to Pythagoras himself, although Pythagorean ideas seem to have influenced Platos philosophy. Pythagoreans maintain that number is the first principle of all things. They were the first systematic developers of mathematics in the West and discovered that natural events could be described in mathematical terms, especially as ratios. To the Pythagoreans, the principle of number accounted for everything. Number was a real thing. Somehow, poetry existed in position, not just as mental constructs.According to Pythagorean doctrine, the entire universe is an consistent whole consisting of harmonies of contrasting elements. The Greek for ordered whole is populace. The Pythagoreans were the first philosophers to use the term cosmos to bring up to the universe in this way. The celestial music of the spheres is the hauntingly beautiful phrase the Pythagoreans coined to describe the sound of the heavens as they rotate according to cosmic number and harmony. Xenophanes A fourth Ionian philosopher, Xenophanes of Colophon, born around 580 B. C. E. , s the first we know of to overtly attack the anthropomorphism of popular religious belief, in a serial publication of brilliant reductio ad absurdum arguments. His own view has been dumb, ever since Aristotle, as pantheistic. Xenophanes was also the first philosopher we know of to ask what degree of knowledge is attainable. In B34 we read the intelligibly and certain truth no man has seen, nor will there be anyone who knows intimately the gods and what I say intimately all things. Several superannuated critics took this to be an indication of Xenophanes total scepticism.On this basis of moderate empiricism and scepticism, Xenophanes offered a number of opinions of variable plausibility about the natural wor ld, one of whicha strong, evolutionary interpretation of the discovery on non-homogeneous islands of fossils of marine animalsis enough to constitute a major demand to fame in natural philosophy and ranks with his other signifi understructuret steps in epistemology (the theory of knowledge dealing with what we know, how we know it, and how reliable our knowledge is), logic (the study of rational inquiry and argumentation), and natural theology (the attempt to understand God from natural knowledge).Heraclitus virtuoso of the most important and enigmatic of the Presocratics, Heraclitus (fl . 500 b. c. e. , d. 510480 b. c. e. ), said that ignorance is bound to result when we try to understand the cosmos when we do not even comprehend the basic structure of the human psyche (soul) and its relationship to the Logos. The daedal Greek word logos is intriguing.It could and at times did mean all of the following intelligence, speech, discourse, thought, reason, word, meaning, study of, th e express of, the science of, the fundamental principles of, the basic principles and procedures of a particular discipline, those features of a thing that make it intelligible to us, and the rule for a thing. The Heraclitean capital L Logos is like God, only without the anthropomorphizing (humanizing) of the earlier philosophers and poets who attributed human qualities to the gods.According to Heraclituss impersonal view of God, the Logos is a process, not an entity. As such, the Logos is unconcerned with individuals and human affairs, in much the same way that gravity affects us but is unconcerned with us. More radically yet, Heraclitus asserted that even though things appear to remain the same, Change alone is unchanging. Traditionally, it has been held that Heraclitus went so far as to claim that everything is always changing all the time. But whether he really meant that everything is always changing, or that individual things are held together by energy ( variety show), re mains unclear.Anaximenes Anaximanders younger contemporary, Anaximenes, who lived during the sixth century B. C. E. appears to revert to a prior and less sophisticated vision in claiming that the earth, far from being a drum-shaped body held in equipoise at the center, is flat and rides on, supported by air. The same might be said of his statement that the basic, divine principle of things was not some indefinite entity but something very much part of our find out namely, air.Anaximenes view would also no doubt have seemed to be corroborated by the fact that the universe, commonly understood as a living thing and hence needing a soul to vivify it, possessed in air that very breath that for most Greeks constituted the essence of such a soul. Parmenides Parmenides of Elea (fift h century b. c. e. ) radically transformed the early philosophers interest in cosmology, the study of the universe as a rationally ordered system (cosmos), into ontology, the study of being. By common agreeme nt he was the giant among the pre-Socratics.According to Parmenides, no(prenominal) of his predecessors adequately accounted for the process by which the one basic stuff of the cosmos changes into the some individual things we figure every day. In his search for a solution to the problem of the one and the many, Parmenides turned to a profound analysis of the process of change itself. According to Parmenides, all sensations occur in the realm of appearance. This means that man cannot be apprehended by the senses. Change and variety (the many) are only appearances they are not real. If this is true, therefore our most commonly held beliefs about reality are mere opinions.The senses cannot recognize what is, much less can they discoverobserveit, ever. In other words, whatever we see, touch, taste, hear, or smell is not real, does not exist. possibly most unsettling of all, Parmenides solved the problem of the appearance of change by concludingin direct electrical resistance to Heraclituss insistence that everything is always changingthat the very concept of change is self-contradictory. What we think of as change is merely an illusion. The logic runs as follows Change equals transformation into something else.When a thing becomes something else, it becomes what it is not. But since it is impossible for nothing (what is not) to exist, there is no nothing into which the old thing can disappear. (There is no no place for the thing to go into. ) Therefore, change cannot occur. Empedocles posited, against Parmenides, change and plurality as features of reality, but affirmed the eternality of anything that is real the sphere-like nature of the real when looked at as a totality and the fact that the real is a plenum, containing no nothingness or emptiness.Anaxagoras likewise posited change, plurality, and divisibility as features of reality, yet also affirmed the eternality of the real (understood by him as an always real mixture of the seeds of the things cu rrently constituting the world, rather than the eternal combinings and recombinings, according to certain ratios of admixture, of four eternally existent roots or elemental masses). Leucippus Leucippus of Miletus (c. fi ft h century b. c. e. ) and Democritus of Abdera (c. 460370 b. . e. ) argued that reality consists entirely of empty space and ultimately simple entities that combine to form objects. T is materialistic view is known as atomism. Leucippus is impute with being the originator of atomism and Democritus with developing it. Rather than reject Parmenides assertion that change is an illusion, Leucippus argued that reality consists of many discrete ones, or beings. Zeno Zeno, who was born early in the fifth century B. C. E. , was a friend and savant of Parmenides.In his famous paradoxes he attempted to show by a series of reductio ad absurdum arguments, of which the best known is perhaps that of Achilles and the tortoise, the self-contradictory consequences of maintaining that there is a real plurality of things or that motion or place are real. The prima facie brilliance of many of the arguments continues to impress people, though it soon becomes clear that the paradoxes turn largely on the failure or unwillingness of Zeno, like so many Pythagoreans of the day, to know between the concepts of physical and geometrical space.Zenos way of constructing the problem makes it seem that his primary object is to defame pluralists by attacking the logical possibility of explaining how there can be motion in the world. Gorgias Gorgias has achieved fame for the latent hostility he laid upon the art of persuasion (rhetoric), although whether he wrote the baffling On What Is Not as a serious piece of persuasive reasoning or as some sort of farce comedy of the Eleatic philosophy of Parmenides and others remains disputed.Its basic, and remarkable, claim is prima facie, that nothing in fact is (exists /is the case esti or is cognisable or conceivable. Any exigu ous plausibility that the arguments supporting this claim possess turns on our overlooking Gorgiass failure, witting or unwitting, to distinguish carefully between knowing and thinking, along with his various uses of the verb to be. If the failure was witting, the instrument can be seen as a skillful device for the spotting of fallacies as part of instruct in rhetoric and basic reasoning.If it was unwitting, Gorgias still emerges as what he was claimed to bea deft rhetorical wordsmith on any topic proposed to him. Protagoras Perhaps the greatest of the Sophists was Protagoras of Abdera (481 411 b. c. e. ). Protagoras was an archetypal Sophist an active traveler and top-notch observer of other stopping points who noted that although there are a variety of customs and beliefs, each culture believes unquestioningly that its own ways are rightand roundly condemns (or at least criticizes) views that differ from its own.establish on his observations and travels, Protagoras concluded that morals are nothing more than the social traditions, or mores, of a indian lodge or group. The details of Protagorass beliefs remain disputed. When he said, for example, that anthropos humanity is a/the beak for all things, of things that are, that they are, and of things that are not, that they are not, it is unclear whether he is talking about one person or the sum total of persons about a measure or the measure (there is no definite article in Greek) or about existence or states of affairs or both.The Platonic reading in the Theaetetus, which takes anthropos as generic and measure as exclusive, led to the assertion that the logical consequence was total (and absurd) relativism. ______________________________ References The capital of South Carolina History of Western Philosophy. Richard H. Popkin. Columbia University Press. 1999. Archetypes of Wisdom An Introduction to Philosophy. 7th ed. Douglas J. Soccio. Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. 2010.