The Tragedy By Pablo Picasso

The cataclysm By Pablo PicassoThe Tragedy by Pablo Picasso was pee in 1903 in Barcelona, Spain (nga.gov). The function was constructed by oil colour on wood. It stands at 41 7/16 x 27 3/16 inches (nga.gov). The time at which The Tragedy was compeld is cognise as Picassos blue check. At this time he was dealing with the recent suicide of his close friend Carlos Casagemas ( mechanic Pablo Picasso). The blue period was defined by sour and depressive subject matter, and an eerywhither affair of blue tints. Both of these characteristics be evident in The Tragedy.The setting in the photograph is t wear of a middle aged com puzzle, a cleaning lady, and a young boy standing on a shoreline. The mise en motion-picture show is lamentable blue and gloomy which helps to create an overwhelming finding of gloom evident in the painting. The common chord of them atomic number 18 position at an shift from the looker and the woman stands with her back to the attestator. The ir body language tells us of examine and depression. Picasso provided freshen uptle detail to the slant or ocean, both of which ar blue. The shadower sand also lacks detail and has been mixed with shades of blue. The bodies and attire of the slew atomic number 18 the only detailed parcels of the live. This was d wiz to shed luminance on certainly that the looker whaps the importance of the piece is human emotion. The three of them be with turn up shoes, and their clothes argon regretful in glossary suggesting that they are wet.Picasso in general utilize line and twineise to complete the optic elements of The Tragedy. The colorize of the blue period reflected the depression of his proclaim life into his art. This is especially straightforward in this work. The lines in this piece are mostly vertical. almost are a set forth of the pullup of the plura illuminatedy. 2 real vertical lines outline the woman and peerless strong vertical line holds up the cover grimace of the man. early(a) vertical lines make up the re primary(prenominal)der of the man and also the boy. These types of lines are also genuinely emphasized in the makeup of their clothes. One strong horizontal line separates the water from the sky. The strong horizontal line helps to ease the painting which is mostly dominated by vertical lines.The work is mostly thus far with s barge motion apparent where the water meets the shore. Picasso utilise some(prenominal) uncontaminating, flowing lines to pretend this motion. Otherwise the ocean and the sky are cool down in the mouth and ease. The painting is non quite symmetrical. The woman stands to one side of the blastoff, and the boy and man to the other. Though this would appear to set the piece off balance, Picasso did a great job of keeping the work very well equilibrize through the use of color and line. The scale of the people in parity to the water and sky is non well proportioned. The people almo st take heedm too big for the scene. Though this is so, I believe it is an effect use to again show the focus of humans and their emotion to this work.The deep discolor of this art is what caught my marrow. When I saw this piece I knew I postulate to fill in the floor. After some research on the piece I purport as though the written report Picasso is telling us is hush up unknown. Perhaps he wanted the individual viewer to interpret the story in their own authority. One review on the work (The impostureist Pablo Picasso) suggested that the man, woman, and boy are a family. This review suggests that the family is not stranded on the margin as m whatsoever would assume at commencement ceremony look, still rather that they are a homeless family who live on or near this beach. The reviewer thinks that the way the family stands suggests this possibility. He argues that the family seems familiar with the area and stands reserved as if in deep panorama rather than looki ng as though they are distraught and conf utilise as they would if they were lost. A present moment review of the work written by Jon Corey suggests that guilt is a main theme in the work. He says that multiple characteristics of the mans posture suggest that he is the guilty instigatey. These characteristics involve a dropped head and one foot a step back from the other. He says that the body language of the woman implies that she is the one who reprimands the man. Corey also suggests that the three subjects are not a family. This is illustrated through the outgo between the three of them. We assume that if they were a family in that location would be a stronger feeling of connectedness between the three of them. Although I agree much(prenominal)(prenominal) with the latter analysis of the work, Corey does not tell us his view of where the three of them came from. In my soulal opinion I call up that the three of them did make out from the sea, tho want Corey I do not think they are a family. They all look cold and wet as if they had wakelessly washed ashore. I feel that that they are the only three survivors of a enchant that capsized. Perhaps guilt is a theme of the piece in that they feel guilty of organism the only survivors.Blue is my darling color, and though it represents sadness especially in this particular work, I am still very drawn to it. I think that the mysteriousness of the work also draws me in. I am not typically a fan of Picasso, exclusively I like this piece. It is something that I would hand over in my own home if given(p) the chance. I am still interested to know if thither was an intend story behind the work or if it was simply meant for me to tell my own. works CitedArtist Pablo Picasso, The. (2010). Retrieved from http//www.the workmanpablopicasso.com/pablo- picasso-painting-tragedy.htm (2010, April 21).Corey, Jon. (2007, November 13). Art History. Retrieved from http//quazen.com/arts/art-history/pablo-picassos (20 10, April 21).National Gallery of Art. (2010). Pablo Picassos The Tragedy transfiguration of a Painting. Retrieved from http//www.nga.gov/feature/picasso/index.shtm (2010, April 20).Claude Monet The Japanese Foot noseband 1899Claude Monet was a French workman who lived from 1840 until 1926. This painting titled The Japanese Footbridge was completed in 1899. The piece is a scene from his own water garden at Giverny (nga.gov). The scene was recreated by him over 250 times during the afterward half of his life. He became so obsessed with painting this particular scene that eventually became the only event of his works (nga.gov). in that location are multiple other works by Monet with same or similar titles and study. This piece is 32 x 40in and was created by oil on rag (nga.gov).Monet was a major part of the impressionism movement. The margin impressionism was actually an insult do toward a work by Monet (Frank 366). The endpoint stuck and the movement grew. The focus of the se artists was landscapes, seasons, and time of day. The impressionist wanted to impersonate what the fondness actually sees rather than what the mind knows (Frank 365). From this movement The Japanese Footbridge was created.The painting depicts a rate of flow surround by very big and thick-skulled grass. The float is covered in illumination pink lily pads. The water is not clear, but rather emphasizes the reflection of the grass surrounding it. As an impressionist piece the colors are not separated, but instead move together making a less vivid image of the scene. first the bottom of the work you see the scene as if from almost spunk level with the water. At the top of the canvas a blue-gray bridge crosses the stream tether to either side of the grassy banks. in that respect are trees in the background giving us a sense that the stream winds out of view. Like most of Monets work and that of other impressionist there is very dwarfish to the scene. The bridge, water, gras s, lily pads, and background of trees complete the scene giving us no view of the sky or what lies to either side of the stream.The visual elements of the work give the viewer a feeling of peace when viewing the painting. The lines are soft and curved. The curve of the bridge is the most prominent line in the work. The soft yet bold line of the bridge combined with its blueish-gray color sets the predilection for the viewer. Although it is a peaceful scene, the balance of the color scheme sets the mood to neither happy nor sad. The dark greens and blues contrast the light pinks and white. The scene is very still which also helps the viewer to feel at peace. There is no recognizable notion to movement of the water leading us to believe it is either a still stream or a very slow moving one. This lack of notion makes me feel as though time is standing still in the painting. The plaza of the work is light in contrast to heavy. The heaviness or mass in the piece is foc employ in the b ackground and to the sides. This mass is tough in the thick forest of tress in the background and the surpass grass to the sides. The focus of light (color) is on the bridge. In a few spots on what we see as the front of the bridge the color is very light blue. It almost does not match the rest of the bridge. Monet utilise this to give the illusion that the sun is reflecting off the bridge. Knowing that time of day was authorised to his work, I must conclude that this is a scene at either sunset or sunrise.The painting is almost perfectly symmetrical. The stream runs directly through the centre of attention of the work dividing the both grassy banks into two small equal proportions. The way the water winds smoothly around the lily pads leads the eye to the trees of the background. In this background there is a dark spot in the trees that locomote in the center of the work. This spot helps to divide the work to be even more symmetrical. The bridge railings were positioned sca rce comely off center to prevent the work from being perfectly symmetrical, but the work is still very well balanced. A reflection of the bridge falls in the bottom of the painting extending the balance from not only remaining to averagely but also top to bottom. With the reflection of the bridge Monet makes it clear to us that this is a wooden bridge by revealing the bottom of the bridge in the reflection. In the reflection we see brown that we do not see if the actual bridge.I take found from this class that I enjoy impressionism more than any other types of art. I cannot say that this is my front-runner piece by Monet since I favor the work Impression morn as one of my favorite works of art in general, but I do like The Japanese Footbridge. I like the heartsease of the scene and I love the bridge. I think the things I do not like about the painting are the view and the colors. I feel a smaller trapped in the small scene Monet provides for us and I want to be able to see what lies foreign of what he is allowing us to see. I also find the colors a little dull. Like all artists I am sure he had a purpose in choosing his colors, but something a little brighter would receive made the piece better for me. Even the use of more light could have brightened it up unless enough to take away that unbiased feeling of neither happiness nor sadness. Over all I think it is a good painting. He used the visual element and the principles of excogitation in a way to make the piece easy on the eye and enjoyable to look at.Works CitedFrank, P. (2009). Prebles Artforms. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson Education, Inc.National Gallery of Art. (2010). The Collection. Retrieved fromhttp//www.nga.gov/collection/gallery/gg85/gg85-74796.html (2010, April 19).The ruin By Claude Joseph VernetClaude Joseph Vernet was a French painter in the eighteenth century. He was the most illustrious water and landscape artist of his time (nga.gov). He was well known for portraying weath er and time of day in his work (nga.gov). Most of his pieces included scenes of either rain, lightning, clouds, moonlight, sunset, storms or a combination of these subjects (nga.gov). He narrow in these stormy seascapes, often depicting voyageing vessels in inconvenience (nga.gov).Vernets painting The Shipwreck is an example of one of these specialized seascapes. The piece is 44 - 64 inches and was created with the use of oil on canvas. The scene in The Shipwreck is that of a institutionalize being washed under by colossal waves. The ship has approached the beach, and the few remaining on board are just seconds from either condomty or disaster. Most passengers have made it to the safety of the beach and are frantically watch as the ship is overcome with water. The wind is so powerful that the sail of the ship is being pulled midland and is running almost parallel to the beach. Those who have escaped the sinking ship have done so by climbing down the ropes of the sail and dr opped safely off the rope and onto the beach. The survivors stand holding ropes of the sail in what looks to be an attempt to stabilize the ship just pertinacious enough for the remaining passengers to escape via this route. Two people hang from the ropes of safety as though debating when to let go and make the fall to land. A person on the beach stands beneath them with their arms raised as to say Jump and I pass on catch you. Four people have made it to the top of the sail and are approaching the safety of the ropes. some other(prenominal)(prenominal) person climbs the sail in an effort to reach the top and make his way down the rope. One brave person can be seen on the deck of the ship. His back is to us as he leans over the side of the ship that is yet to go under. He leans hard. It makes the viewer take away if the man is on his way overboard or if he is his last attempts to reach out for someone who has already gone overboard.To the right a person is stranded on a boulder that lines the beach. To the left some other bolder strands two more people. Behind these two people a huge wave crashes against the tall rock shore line. In the front left hand corner a group of people have made it away from the crashing shore and to a safer place. Three of them attend to a tour woman who seems to be injured or even unconscious. Another man in this area rolls a barrel up the beach to a safer place.In the back ground another ship can be seen. It also looks as though it too will soon be taken by the storm. Atop the tall rocky shoreline a palace can be seen in the distance. Vernet used whitening from the storm to create light in this piece. A huge diagonal streak of buoy up hangs in the sky just above the second ship. The sky is lit in pink around the lightening while the rest of the sky is covered in dark, stormy grays and blues. The lightening streak has a crispy line that shows its strength and assertiveness in the sky. This line points directly to a city in the background of the painting. The city is lit by the lightening in a warm pink. The warmth of the city stand ford a safe place. It says to the viewer If only the ship would have washed ashore here, everything would be okay.Vernet used other sharp, assertive lines as well. The mast of the ship which hangs over the beach holds a sharp line that points toward the upper left hand side of the painting. The eye follows this line upward and to a broken tree carve up that hangs in the rocks of the shore. Vernet used color to show us that this tree has recently been broken in the midst of the storm. The remaining tree limbs blow hard to the left indicating the direct of the overpowering wind. From there the eye is caught by the white of a breaking wave against a dark background. This is when the two people stranded on the boulder are noticed. From the boulder the eye is taken by horizontal lines of the waves of the sea and carried over to the sinking ship. This is when the viewer takes more detail to deck of the ship. From here the viewer is also made assured of a man stranded on a second boulder. disceptation and color are the strongest visual elements in this piece. Though line plays a great role in the flow of the work, I feel that Vernets use of color is what made the painting great to me. The dark sky is lit by the lightening in a pinkish orange. This color is reflected on the city in the background. Above the city the sky is purple. The purple blends into a dark blue and grays which then become lighter blue in spots above the ship. These lighter blue spots were used to portray the sun that is hidden behind the dark, stormy clouds. The portrayal of the sun is also evident on the beach. In the area that is the focus of the piece, the sun shines down and lights the people. The sand here is lighter, and the ocean is green in this area rather than blue. In the sky above this area a break in the clouds reveals the blue sky. This is where the sunlight is coming f rom. I think the use of light here gives the viewer a sense of hope, and the knowing that these people will survive. In contrast to these people, the last man aboard the deck of the ship is very dark. A small area of light reflects of his back just enough to make him obtrusive. I feel that this man was painted in dark colors to portray his fate of not surviving this shipwreck.The color and the seascape is what made me choice this painting. I love the blues, greens, and purples of the piece, and water is my favorite subject when it comes to art. After close attention to the detail of this piece I respect it in a disparate way. The symbolism of light and dark in this painting is beautiful. I have never really thought of art in that sense until now. It has opened my eyeball to how perfectly the visual elements can be manipulated to create something nubful.Works CitedClaude Joseph Vernet The Shipwreck. (2010). Retrieved from the National Gallery ofArt website http//www.nga.gov/featur e/artnation/vernet/index.shtm.(2010, April 24).Vincent cutting edge wagon train van Goghs little girl in WhiteAfter research on Starry Night by van Gogh, I have taken interest in him. I wanted to research another piece by him so I choose Girl in White. I choose this piece for two reasons. The first reason was because I wanted to study something far different from Starry Night. At first glance of this piece it is easy to see that the content and colors used are considerably different in the two paintings. Secondly, the time at which this was painted is interesting to me. I know that he died in July of 1890 later on a self inflicted gun shot wound to the stomach (Life of van Gogh ). Girl in White is dated 1890 (nga.gov) as well, meaning this piece by him was created in the midst of his final frantic breakdown.Girl in White was done in the post-impressionist style which van Gogh is known for. It a 26 1/4 x 18 1/16 inch oil on canvas (nga.gov). The content is exactly what it sounds like it would be. A girl cloaked in a white dress stands in the center of the painting. She is surrounded by tall flowers and appears to be standing in the middle of a field. There is little detail to the work. The flowers in the piece hardly even resemble flowers. cutting edge Gogh simply used long, thick brush strokes to represent these flowers. They are slightly off color to the rest of the back ground which makes them more noticeable. He also painted occasional small red circles which represent the buds of the flowers.The girl is dressed in a white dress. To me this dress looks to be a espousal dress, but she wears a large sun hat on her head which means this probably is not a wedding dress. Although titled Girl, this does not look to be a girl, but rather a woman in her mid to late twentys. What little facial features van Gogh did provide make to woman appear to be stressed and unhappy. If this were a young girl I would expect a lighter mood expressed on her face.The lines in the piece are all vertical. The woman appears to be very tall because of the way these lines were used. The long straight lines of her dress, long arms, and near abnormally long hands and fingers make this so. A curved line used in the hat which falls across her forehead helps to break up all the vertical lines. Without this line, the painting would seem too sharp and less appealing to the eye. The placement of the woman on the canvas also gives this vertical appearance. The very bottom of the canvas broods of the lower half of her dress, but her feet are not showing. The upper part contains a small amount of the surrounding field, but the womans hat just about reaches the top of the canvas. Her body takes up most of the space vertically, yet more of the field is apparent to the left and right of the woman. This combined with many vertical lines emphasizes her appearance of being very tall and thin.Van Gogh used light in an interesting way in this piece. I feel that it is hard to focus on this womans face because it appears dark and shaded from light. Instead the eyes are more drawn to the lighter areas of the woman which focus on her dress around the breast area and lower stomach. I do not know if this was meant to be symbolic of fertility in anyway, but it seems possible.The colors in this piece are plain and far different from a lot of his work toward the end of his life. Van Gogh painted with dull colors in his early works, but had taken a drastic turn in color scheme in his later pieces. I privately feel like this piece is reflective of the emotional pain he was enduring at the time this was created. Since dark colors a usually associated with death and dying, which I believe van Gogh was debating at the time this was created, I feel that the light colors used here represent his peace he associated with no longer being in his cruel world. It is known that van Gogh used color to express emotion in his work and this helps me to draw this unusual concl usion.When I look at this piece and consider the artist, and the year it was created, a story comes to my mind. I do not know if the story I create is anywhere close to the truth. I did not research this piece by van Gogh specifically, instead I wanted to take my own view of it and analyze it without any outside bias. The story I see is that of van Goghs lover after his death. She is dressed in her wedding dress when she hears the news of his death. In deep sorrow she wanders aimlessly into a field. There she stands with no direction of where to go, and the confusion and sadness is shown on her face. The light reflected on her breast and stomach could be symbolic of their plans to have children or symbolize that she is already in the early stages of pregnancy.Works CitedLife and Art of Vincent van Gogh. (March 23, 2010). Retrieved from http//lifeofvangogh.comNational Gallery of Art. (2010). The Collection. Retrieved fromhttp//www.nga.gov/collection/gallery/vangogh/vangogh-46505.html (2010, April 28).Thomas Morans Grand canyon of YellowstoneThomas Moran was born(p) in England in 1837. He moved to the join States as a young boy, and grew up in Pennsylvania. Though born in England, he is considered an American artist (nga.gov). The subject of his art was eer American landscapes. Grand Canyon of Yellowstone was completed in 1872 and is considered a part of Morans western collection. This painting is give tongue to to have launched his career as an artist (nga.gov).Grand Canyon of Yellowstone is a landscape scene from Yellow jewel National Park in Wyoming (Smithsonian). The view is from inside of a canyon. The viewer looks out over a ledge and straight ahead to a water fall in the distance. A mist has built up from the fall and it clouds the view. From the mist, the eye catches the blue water of the Yellowstone River (Smithsonian) and carries the viewer back to the ledge. Two people stand in the distance at the edge of the ledge. It is said that one of these t wo people is Moran himself (nga.gov). Also in the distance what appears to be a horse and people with luggage are making their way up the trail toward to viewer. The viewer is looking west. I think this is important to the work because it symbolizes Morans plans of exploration further west. It is as if he stopped here and took in the view of the direction he was headed. I know that the viewer is looking west because more vegetation is apparent on the right side of the canyon. More vegetation indicates a northern direction. I know this from personal experience in the western United States.Moran used light to show us how huge the western sky is. He did this by creating large dark and light areas throughout the piece. This is significant because starting with the position of the viewer the ground goes from dark to light, back to dark, and again to light in the far off distance. The first dark area is not as important as the second because it is likely only the shadows of the canyon. Th e second dark area however is representational of a cloud over head. This is noticeable because of the way the ground is again lighter in the distance. If you have ever experienced the huge western sky this is easy to catch on to. I think Moran did the piece this way because he wanted to include the feeling of the large sky without actually showing it. The view from which the scene is painted does not allow much room for the sky so he had to show its enormousness in a different way.In the far distance above the canyon the land flattens to a plateau. In the even further distance snowcapped mountains can be recognized. This is also another indication that the viewer is looking west and toward the Rocky Mountains.The scale at which Moran painted himself and the other people helps us to grasp the vastness of canyon. They are so small that they are almost not even noticed. This gives the viewer an idea of how huge the canyon really is. Moran was painting for those who had never seen anyt hing like this before, and he wanted them to be ale to feel completely engulfed into the scene as he had felt.I do not feel that Moran did anything too come across with the piece as far as visual elements are concerned. I think he painted what he saw the way he saw it, and that is what makes it great. I think this is obvious by his use of colors. They consist of dull browns and earth tones. They are not popular or tricksy colors that would typically draw you into a painting, but they are the true colors that he saw. Because of this I can rate this painting more than any other that I have studied. I know that it is real. There is no underlying meaning or message to be heard. It is just truth. He wanted you to see the canyon as it really is and appreciate its natural beauty.Landscape pieces are my favorite subject in art. I am especially fond of Morans western collection because of my own personal attachment there. I can relate to his art better than any other artist I have studied because I know what he felt when he painted these scenes. I know that I felt the same way the first time I travelled west. It is an indescribable feeling of beauty and you become completely engulfed in to it. To me there is nothing else like it, and I long to be back there almost every day I am so cheering I found this piece because it helps to fill in a little piece of me that is missing.

Separation of Powers UK

musical interval of force outs UKWhat was the social occasion of the dissolution of sources as origin completelyy envisaged?How does it operate in modern-day practice? bank account Headers pull in been removed to show that sacred scripture count is non wounded by more than than 10%To answer these questions I get out need to name a few aboriginal concepts, startingly insularism of major world powers and what this opines- legal withdrawal of sources is the conceit that the trinity functions of organization Legislation, execution and adjudication should be dealt with by k right off a go away branches of government Legislature, administrator and Judiciary1. When it comes to the phrase Originally envisaged it has to be move arounded out who is cosmos referred to the- Montesquieu is the psyche generally linked with the phrase separation of powers which he wrote around in The inspirit of the Laws. I go away speak just about Montesquieu views in the first s ection of the es word. Originally Envisaged may just besides refer to the views of the founding fathers and in particular those that contributed to the Federalist papers as they wrote numerous times about the importance of the separation of powers. (To tackle how it was originally envisaged I will devise reference to documents written by these parties and extensively use quotes from The Spirit of Laws, The Federalist papers and the Ameri privy war paint to back up my points and to analysis what they originally envisaged) I will write about this in the section after discussing Montesquieu and his views on legal separation of powers. These two sections will answer the section of the question on how interval of Powers was Originally envisaged I will wherefore discuss what the object of separation of Powers was according with relation to Montesquieu The trigger Fathers. I will then go onto answer the second part of the question- Outlining where Separation of Powers is non creation strictly copyed and where problems exist within the system and where Separation of Powers is followed in modern America.Montesquieu is an important figure when discussing Separation of Powers due to his book The Spirit of the Laws in which he outlines why the Separation of Powers is necessary and how it should be separated. Montesquieu discusses how Democratic and profane states are non necessarily free Tis necessary that by the very(prenominal) disposition of things power should be a check to power2 In early(a) words thither should be checks and balances to ensure familiarity coffin nail exist. Ensuring Liberty is a key out theme in The Spirit of Laws and could be seen as the inclination of the Separation of powers according to Montesquieu. But to be able to branch if this operates successfully in contemporary practice we must look at we must look at how Montesquieu explains it- he uses the British disposition as his main display case3 seeing the British sy stem as peerless that was a free state4. He sees the reason for this is because of the independence that exists betwixt the different bodies- Legislative, Executive and Judiciary stating that There is no liberty, if the power of judging be not separated from the legislative and executive powers5 this system of power being keep by early(a) powers6 is the reason according to Montesquieu why the British formulateation could ensure Liberty. These regulations on power had in Montesquieus opinion the power to give notice corruption or tyranny as he believes that Every while invested with power is apt to abuse it7 This is an argument for the separation of powers as the rumor Every Man suggests that any person given absolute power will abuse it, It is important to note however this does not mean that Montesquieu favoured country he simply believes that as long as there is separation of powers liberty is ensured he even states that most Kingdoms of Europe get it on moderate govern ment8 Not because of any antiauthoritarian principle but because the prince who is invested in the first two powers, leaves the third to his subject9 (The third power referring to the Judiciary). Montesquieu places much emphasis on judicial independence, which is important to note as it will compose relevant when looking at how it operates in contemporary practice as the appointments by the executive to the Supreme Court may be a potential problem. Another point to note within this section is how separate Montesquieu intended the different bodies to be- whilst he stated that they should remain separate he too mentions that if The legislature think itself in danger by some(prenominal)(prenominal) conspiracy against the state It might authorise the executive power, for a brusk and limited time, to imprison suspected persons10 this suggests that whilst Montesquieu believed that separation was necessary he also believed that if necessary the different part of government should be able to interact in such a way if it is deemed necessary. It is also important to possess agnize that Separation does not mean that the 3 different parts will not be able to communicate, indeed Montesquieu believes it necessary for example the Judiciary to be informed of law from the legislature and that they must follow the exact letter of the law11.To summarise Montesquieus views on Separation of Powers I would say that he believes that the purpose of the Separation of the three bodies of government is to ensure that power is not abused, however as mentioned frontly there are some limitations to this separation which gutter be summed up by Montesquieu himself Should abuses creep into one part, they fire be meliorate by those that remain sound12. Montesquieu is important as he heavily enchantd the founding fathers during the creation of the Ameri usher out Constitution and it can be seen that the founding fathers have built upon Montesquieus writings in The Spirit of the Laws, It should be noted however that although Montesquieu was the first person to write about the Separation of in the way it is contemporary understood, there are numerous links to Polybius and the concept of a mixed record13, Polybius also mentions separate branches of government14 and as such is important to note along with Montesquieu when discussing separation of powers.I will now discuss what the grounding fathers (Specifically those involved with the draught and approval of the constitution) intellection of the Separation of powers as how they Originally Envisaged is crucial to answering the second part of the question, this section will be less detailed than the section on Montesquieu as they were heavily influenced by Montesquieu (Which I will prove later) so will share much of the same purpose and views on the Separation of powers. I will look at a few key Documents from the Federalist papers- 47 and 51- and also at the American Constitution, the Constitution should give an acuteness into what was originally envisaged and the Federalist papers should give more of an penetration into what the purpose was.for the first time the American constitution- the phrase Separation of Powers is not found in the constitution however the principles are prevalent throughout it and the influence of the concept of Separation of Powers strong, many of the constitutions of individual states specifically mention the need for separation of powers15 notably Virginia- That the legislative, executive, and judicial departments of the Commonwealth should be separate and distinct16. Although the American constitution does not cite anything quite as clear as Virginias section on the Separation of powers the way it is built is clearly shows the influence of Separation of powers with legislative power being granted to Congress in the first article All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress17 Similarly Executive power granted to the president The executive Power shall be vested in a President18 and Judicial power The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court and in such inferior courts19. It is clear that whilst separation of powers is not mentioned as it is in the Virginian constitution the principle is swell and truly understood and represented by the Founding Fathers and the Constitution, these three quotes were taken from the first three articles respectively, so it can safely be assumed that the Separation of Powers in some form or another was an aim of the constitution. So as Originally Envisaged the constitution shows that three distinct branches were considered necessary, with regard to what the purpose of it was we need an insight into what the Founding Fathers considered, and the Federalist papers provide such an insight which is extremely useful when severe to find out the purpose of Separation of powers. I will now discuss the relevance of the Federalist papers and conclude on wha t they saw the purpose as.The Federalist papers were essentially pieces of propaganda designed to gain support for the constitution20, they were written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay and James capital of Wisconsin21 who were all founding fathers- James Madison is of particular importance as he is considered the Father of the constitution and is verbalise to have played a Pivotal Role in the drafting of the document22, the papers were published anonymously but the two papers I will be looking at are said to be written by- 47 (Madison) 51 (Either Hamilton or Madison)23. The reason I have chosen these two papers is because they twain make mention of Separation of powers and as Madison is considered the Father of the constitution it will give an insight into what the purpose of Separation of Powers was as originally envisaged by the Founding Fathers in the Constitution. Firstly Paper 47, this paper by James Madison makes it clear what the purpose of Separation of powers is- it state s The preservation of liberty requires that the three great departments of power should be separate and distinct24 so like Montesquieu the purpose is Liberty, this paper also acts to support the idea that Montesquieu was a big influence on the American Constitution with the statement The oracle who is always consulted and cited on this subject is the far-famed Montesquieu25, as discussed in the section on Montesquieu there are caveats with the separation of powers and Madison also accepts and discusses these in this paper, using Montesquieu as his guide he considers the British constitution and how the three branches and not completely separate26. Paper 51 sets out in more detail how the separation of powers will work and further emphasises his purpose of support for the separation of powers The great difficulty lies in this you must first enable the government to prevail the governed and in the next place oblige it to control itself27 the important phrase here it to control itse lf, this shows an understanding of the principle of Checks and Balances as this is the way in which the government can control itself, however the general theme and purpose are shown to be the preservation of liberty.So to summarise this section I would say I have shown how both Montesquieu and the Founding fathers are agreed on the purpose of the separation of powers which is to ensure liberty, and they are both generally agreed on the idea of how this will be done- through checks and balances and the separation of the 3 branches of government, however I retrieve that there is one substantial difference in the midst of Montesquieu and the Founding Fathers views on the trouble which is- Whilst Montesquieu makes it clear that it neednt be a democracy to ensure Liberty, Madison states that dependence on the people is, no doubt, the elemental control on the government28 also Montesquieu believes that there is need for a genetical body29 which is not considered by Madison or the fo unding fathers.To start with I will identify the basics of how it operates, at its simplest level separation of powers can be considered to be the split of the 3 Branches of government into Legislative, Executive and Judiciary30- In contemporary America these are split thusLegislative = Congress- including both the Senate House of RepresentativesExecutive = PresidentJudiciary = Supreme Court and let down courts31This system operates in that Executive and Legislative are elected by the public and the Judiciary are appointed by the Executive and okay by the Judiciary32 (I will critique this as a point where Separation of powers does not exist in a later section).With separation of powers the three branches are to act as a limit to the powers of each other33 (Checks and Balances) so I will now discuss how this operates in practice, one key way in which this exists is through impeachment, this allows the Legislative to remove the Executive from slur for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.34, this could be seen as today meeting Montesquieus statement Should abuses creep into one part, they can be reformed by those that remain sound35 but it also presents a problem as it way of life that there is an overlap between the different branches however as I have discussed this does not mean a failure of separation of powers, it can however be considered as a potential failing as Other High Crimes and Misdemeanors is vague and open to interpretation so the Abuses of power Montesquieu could exist here if the executive were to be removed below the belt by a Legislative with ulterior motives.With the creation of legislation there are numerous checks and balances on the three branches of government I will attempt to point them all out in the explanation of the course of a write up becoming law- Laws can come from either sleeping room of congress- and must be passed in both, this is a check on itself and shows the influence of the British model on the American one (as well as on Montesquieu) through the existence of two chambers in the legislature. If the bill is passed by both Chambers it then must be ratified by the Executive- who can either veto it or pass it (Which means that the executive has a check on the power of the Legislature), if the executive vetoes it can be overridden by a 2/3 majority in both Chambers of the legislature, which is a check on the power of the executive. If the bill is passed then it has to be approved by the Supreme Court as being constitutional- which is a check on the power of all the other bodies.36 As can be seen the amount of checks the separation of powers works well here other than with the Supreme Court having no check on it and the ability to outright reject a bill.There are a few quirks in the American system that means Separation of Powers is not as clear cut as it could be one issue being that the vice-president is also the president of the senate37 which is a c lear overlap between the Executive and legislative, however as the Vice-President only has a casting vote38and does not have as much power as the president in the executive this can be seen as a technical breach rather than a problematic one. Another breach which is possibly more problematic is the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court- these are appointed by the President and confirmed by the senate39 whilst the fact that they are confirmed by the senate means that there is a check it also means that all 3 branches overlap in this area, it can create problems for the Executive when previous Presidents have appointed judges of a certain political panorama which can be seen as an abuse of power and therefore Separation of Powers has not been met.To summarise this essay I would say that the Purpose of the Separation of Powers as Originally Envisaged- Which can refer to either Montesquieu or the Founding Fathers- is in both cases the Preservation of Liberty. Whether or not this o perates in contemporary practice is debatable, I have been limited in this essay by attempting to answer two questions that potentially could be questions in their own right, I would like to have been able to explore further the Problems and Quirks but with the word limit of a single essay being imposed on two separate questions had to focus more on the questions at pass on rather than being able to discuss these issues. I have seek to use Primary sources as much as possible- My main references being The Spirit of Laws, American Constitution and The Federalist Papers as I feel that this improves the validity of my points.1 Heywood, Andrew, ( two hundred7), Politics third Edition, Palgrave Foundations, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England Pg. 3392 Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of atomic number 20 Press Ltd. Pg. 2003 David Boucher capital of Minnesota Kelly, (2009), Political Thinkers from Socrates to Present, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England Pg. 2504 Ibid Pg. 2515 Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 2026 David Boucher Paul Kelly, (2009), Political Thinkers from Socrates to Present, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England Pg. 2517 Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 2028 Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 2029 Ibid Pg. 20210 Ibid Pg.20411 Ibid Pg. 20312 Ibid Pg. 18413 Davis Lloyd, Marshall, Polybius and the Founding Fathers The Separation of Powers, (Written 22/09/1998 Revised 02/09/2006) Available From http//www.mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm, (Accessed 12/12/2009)14 Walbank, F.W., (1990), Polybius, London, England, University of California Press Ltd., Pg. 15015 Vile, M.J.C ., (1967), Constitutionalism and the separation of powers, Oxford, England, Oxford University Press, Pg. 11916 Constitution of Virginia, oblige 1 Section 5, Available From http//legis.state.va.us/constitution/a1s5.htm Accessed (12/12/2009)17 American Constitution phrase 1 Section 1, Available From http//www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Accessed (12/12/2009)18 Ibid Article 2 Section 119 Ibid Article 3 Section 120 Dahl, Robert A., (2001), How democratic is the American Constitution?, Yale University Press, United States Pg. 6421 Ibid Pg. 6422 library of Congress, http//www.loc.gov/wiseguide/may05/constitution.html, Accessed (12/12/2009)23 Library of Congress, http//thomas.loc.gov/ shoes/histdox/fedpapers.html, Accessed (12/12/2009)24 Library of Congress, http//thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_47.html, Accessed (12/12/2009)25 Library of Congress, http//thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_47.html, Accessed (12/12/2009)26 Ibid27 Library of Congress, http//tho mas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_51.html, Accessed (12/12/2009)28 Library of Congress, http//thomas.loc.gov/home/histdox/fed_47.html, Accessed (12/12/2009)29 Montesquieu, Carrithers, David Wallace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 20630 Heywood, Andrew, (2007), Politics third Edition, Palgrave Foundations, Basingstoke, Hampshire, England Pg. 33931 American Constitution, Available From http//www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Accessed (12/12/2009)32 McKay, David (2009), American Politics and Society, Blackwell Publishers, Printed in Singapore by C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd. Pg. 4733 David Boucher Paul Kelly, (2009), Political Thinkers from Socrates to Present, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, England Pg. 25134 American Constitution, Article 2 Section 4, Available From http//www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Accessed (12/12/2009)35 Montesquieu, Carrithers, David W allace Ed. (1977), The Spirit of Laws, London, England, University of California Press Ltd. Pg. 18436 McKay, David (2009), American Politics and Society, Blackwell Publishers, Printed in Singapore by C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd. Pg. 4737 American Constitution, Article 1 Section 3, Available From http//www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html Accessed (12/12/2009)38 Ibid39 McKay, David (2009), American Politics and Society, Blackwell Publishers, Printed in Singapore by C.O.S. Printers Pte Ltd. Pg. 47

Analysis of the Child Behaviour Checklist

Analysis of the pincer demeanour ChecklistChapter II Literature ReviewAs apprizeed in the footing, m either inquiryers redeem explored the preponderance of aro mathematical functiond and conductal conundrums crosswise the globe. Researchers hurt to a fault investigated correlates (e.g., period and sexual activity) associated with stirred up and behavioral problems. The psychometric properties of instruments surveying frantic and doingsal problems do overly been a subject of interest. In addition, researchers collect in addition investigated cross-ethnical resemblingities and disparities among unrestrained and behavioral problems. The extensive literature that addresses these discovers, and which connatur whollyy patroned airulate the principle for the present-day(prenominal) study, is presented in five dents. The prototypal branch lastlights the problems associated with epidemiologic studies and comp argons the ii primary(prenominal) risees to epidemiologic studies, namely the vapid and the falsifiable barbel. The second section adds a detai guide description of the CBCL including the evolution of the legal profession, its psychometric properties, its advant ripens and disadvant get along withs, as healthy as its wave of applicability. The terzetto section permits a description of the divinatory precept for assessing pagan similarities and disparities associated with steamy and behavioral problems. Multicultural findings doped on the CBCL as s considerably uphead as era and sexual urge differences associated with aflame and behavioural problems be overly attract. The fourth part section consists of a review article of the motley processes convoluted in assessing the psychometric properties of instruments and findings found on psychometric properties of the several(a) translations of the CBCL. The 5th section consists of a brief cultural and socio-political description of Pakistani f amily followed by a description of the spectacular features (i.e., family, community and cultural fixingss) in relation to randy and behavioural problems in Pakistani society. Fin tout ensembley, thither is a description of the objectives of the reliable study.Epidemiology of Emotional and Behavioural fusssCurrent reviews of epidemiological studies depict that at that place is a soaring preponderance of aflame and behavioural problems among s pick uprren and adolescents nigh the realness (Costello et al., 2004 Hackett Hackett, 1999 Waddell et al., 2002). In one review, Costello et al. comp atomic number 18d findings crossways several veritable countries (including Canada, the unify States, the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia) to investigate the preponderance of turned on(p) and behavioural problems as advantageously as that of a nonher(prenominal) mental problems. base on their findings, the over any preponderance pass judgment of mental problems a mong children and adolescents had a very broad rank (0.1% to 42%), with metamorphoseing place for each category of disease. Categories let in tumultuous behaviour incommodes (i.e., conduct dis align, oppositional disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), mood disorders (i.e., study(ip) depressive disorder and bipolar disorder), apprehension disorders (i.e., phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive despotic disorder, and post-traumatic tenseness disorder) as rise up as substance ab lend oneself and dependence. A little examination of the studies implicated in the review revealed that variations in prevalence grade may be attributed to methodological flaws such(prenominal) as stiff dissimilitude crosswise studies with deference to sample size and the age start assessed. muchover, differences across studies in harm of the measures used, the criteria employed as well as the emblem of informant may also extradite mouldd the findings.In communication channel to Costello et al.s (2004) review, Waddell et al.s (2002) review was ground on more(prenominal) stringent criteria studies found on samples of similar size and age range, as well as using similar methodology were compargond. Based on Waddell et al.s review, the prevalence rank of unrestrained and behavioural problems varied between 10% and 20%. Although findings from twain(prenominal) reviews vary considerably, the prevalence rates of randy and behavioural problems across developed countries is passive high and warrants serious attention. Moreover, methodological disparities across studies unders eye the gather up for a coherent methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems.In crinkle to developed countries, on that point atomic number 18 fewer researchers investigating prevalence rates in growth countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Sri lanka, Sudan, and Uganda) (Costello, 2009 Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004 Mul lick Goodman, 2005 Nikapota, 1991 Prior, Virasinghe, Smart, 2005). Moreover, in that location is a scarcity of reviews of the active studies. In one review, Hackett and Hackett (1999) comp bed way outs from India, Puerto Rico, Malaysia and Sudan, and the prevalence rates of mental disorders ranged from 1% to 49%. standardised to research in developed countries, researchers attribute variations in findings to methodological problems across studies, which intromit an inadequate sample size, paucity of diaphanous and internation alone in ally authoritative symptomatic criteria, as well as inconsistencies in judicial decision procedures (Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004). Moreover, prevalence rates among developing countries may also partly be conjugated to the brformer(a)ly, economic and medical environment. For example, lack of medical resources and aw arness whatsoever psychological problems may result in parents non k outrighting how to want help (Gadit, 2007). gen ial taboos further compound the problem, preventing people from coverage problems and deterring help-seeking behaviour (Samad, Hollis, Prince, Goodman, 2005). More importantly, cultural variations in the conceptualisation and recognition of psychological problems may result in varied spread overing of prognostics (Gadit, 2007). These environ psychical differences and methodological inconsistencies across studies punctuate the subscribe for a cross-culturally robust methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems.Along with methodological problems and environmental differences, emotional and behavioural problems deserve investigation because they affect denary aspects of childrens carrying out such as pedantic performance and social enrolment (Montague et al., 2005 Nelson et al., 2004 Vitaro et al., 2005). Researchers also state that at that place is high comorbidity among emotional and behavioural problems, (SteinHausen, Metze, Meier, K annenberg, 1998) which creates threefold problems for children and their caregivers. Moreover, many childhood disorders overcompensate and influence functioning during adulthood. In fact, many adult disorders are now recognised as having roots in childhood vulnerabilities (Maughan Kim-Cohen, 2005 Tremblay et al., 2005). Furthermore, recognizing and treating problems early atomic number 50 let down the burden of the enormous human and financial costs associated with the judicial decision and intervention, peculiarly in countries where resources are scarce (Costello, Egger, Angold, 2005 James et al., 2002 Waddell et al., 2002). In addition, cross-cultural epidemiology of childrens emotional and behavioural problems may also better inform on-going familiarity some(predicate) the characteristics, course, and correlates of such problems, which in turn ply a scientific basis for appropriate mental health planning (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007 Waddell et al.). Therefore, thithe r is a strong need for a methodology that can be utilized for clinical as well as research purposes to assess emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents across cultures.Current literature indicates that there are devil primary(prenominal) flakes to investigate the epidemiology of emotional and behavioural problems, namely the monotone and the a posteriori lift. There are several differences in both salutees including conceptualization of psychological problems as well as the methodology employed for their judicial decision. twain approaches bequeath be discussed briefly.The unconditional approach. The savourless approach, ground on the biomedical perspective, views psychological problems as a grouping of maladaptive and distressing behaviours, emotions and thoughts which are qualitatively incompatible from the typical (Cullinan, 2004). That is, similar to medical diseases, an several(prenominal) may or may not stupefy a event psychological disorder. traditionalistic epidemiological studies are establish on the categorical approach as embodied in various redeings of the Diagnostic and Statistical manual for affable Disorders (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 1980 1987 1994 2000) and the Inter matter Classification of Diseases (WHO, 1978 1992). Examples of instruments used in traditional epidemiological studies to derive DSM diagnoses embarrass the Diagnostic Interview inventory for baby birdren ( magnetic disc) (Costello, Edelbrock, Kalas, Kessler, Klaric, 1982) and the childrens interlingual rendition of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (Kiddie-SADS) (Puig-Antich Chambers, 1978). At present, there is goodish think about the validity of epidemiological studies base on the categorical approach. Researchers throw away highlighted that inconsistencies in prevalence rates may be collectable to conceptual and methodological issues linked with the DSM as well as methodologi cal disparities among studies (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007 Waddell et al., 2002). each of these agentive roles will be discussed briefly.DSM related problems. Multiple conceptual and methodological problems are associated with the DSM. First, the DSM does not provide a methodology to operationally make distinct psychological disorders (Widiger Clark, 2000). To operationally define DSM criteria, various diagnostic converses such as the DISC have been developed. Unfortunately, meta-analyses indicate that the diagnoses ground on the DISC and separate diagnostic interviews are not in agreement with diagnoses make with comprehensive clinical interviews, which indicate that, neither diagnostic nor clinical interviews provide good validity criteria for testing DSM categories (Achenbach, 2005 Costello et al., 2005 Lewczyk et al., 2003). Second, the diagnostic categories and criteria provided in the DSM encompass to trade as reflected in the salmagundis across the various variates of the DSM, namely the third edition (APA, 1980), third edition revised (APA, 1987), fourth edition (APA, 1994), and fourth edition text revised (APA, 2000), making pars across editions problematic (Achenbach, 2005). Third, although the current meter reading, cognize as the DSM-IV-text revised (APA, 2000), aims at introducing cultural sensitivity in opinion and diagnoses by including an outline for cultural formulation and a semblance of culture-bound syndromes (APA., 2000, pg. 897), it does not provide criteria or guidelines seeing the use of the classification trunk with detail cultural groups (Paniagua, 2005). Since many of the DSM diagnostic criteria are ground on Euro-American social norms, it is hard to use the DSM criteria to identify psychiatry in individuals from other cultures.In addition, there is growing consensus among researchers that DSM categories need to be more appropriate for children and adolescents of line of working ages and sexuality (Doucette, 2 002 Segal Coolidge, 2001). Turk et al. (2007) also highlight the saliency of reckons such as age and gender when investigating prevalence rates. However, at present, this is not the plate. Costello et al. (2005) have verbalize that the incessant developmental changes of childhood create the need for an age- and gender- proper(postnominal) approach to epidemiology. onwards incorporating a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies, it is natural to have a better understanding of developmental psychiatry. Developmental psychiatry is based on the view that problems bone up from dissimilar causes, distinct themselves otherwise at each stage, and may have diverse outcomes. Developmental psychologists do not support a item theory to explain all developmental issues. Instead, they try to arrest knowledge from multiple disciplines (Cicchetti Dawson, 2002). Moreover, developmental psychopathology also allow ins an depth psychology of the lasting jeopardize and pr otective factors indoors the individual and also in his/her environment over the course of development (Cicchetti Walker, 2003). jibe to Costello and colleagues (2004), a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies is based on the cellular inclusion of certain principles. First, minute judicial decision measures for the various phases in childhood and adolescence are take to compare childrens functioning with that of their similar-age peers. For example, problems such as maintenance of sulky places is considered typical for 6-year-olds but not for 12-year-olds. Furthermore, the developmental perspective would include longitudinal studies to evaluate the ways in which developmental processes influence the risk of specific psychological disorders. For example, the developmental trajectory of visible aggression is such that there is an increase in battleful Behavior during the prime(prenominal) few age of childhood, but it progressively decreases until adulthood ( Tremblay et al., 2004). Moreover, developmental epidemiology would include grass estimations to circumscribe the onset of disorders. Frequent assessments would also assist in the appellation of environmental and individual factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology. Although the developmental perspective emphasises the need for age- and gender-specific diagnostic criteria, longitudinal studies as well as frequent assessments, it is intemperate to incorporate this perspective in studies based on the categorical approach as it is not sensitive to developmental changes.Methodological disparities. A slender analysis of categorically based epidemiological studies reveals multiple methodological problems. These include inconsistencies in assessment and ingest procedures as well as absence seizure of guidelines about using information from multiple sources. In terms of assessment procedures, both symptoms as well as significant scathe are required to identify chi ldren with disorders. This is corroborated by Costello et al. (2004), who report that the disparity in the prevalence rates of phobias (i.e., 0.1% to 21.9%) may be attributed to how phobias were assessed in each study, in limited, whether both symptoms (e.g., concern of open places, snakes) as well as significant working(a) impairment were taken into account in the identification of phobias. Waddell et al. (2002) state that the use of exchangeable measures has lead to an improvement in the assessment of symptoms however, problems still exist with regard to how impairment is gauged or how measures may be feature to include symptoms as well as impairment. other problem with assessment procedures is that unalike interview schedules (e.g., DISC and the Kiddie-SADS) and DSM editions have been used across studies, which may have contributed to differences in prevalence rates.Incompatible sampling procedures may also have led to disparities in overall prevalence rates in categorical ly based epidemiological studies (Waddell et al., 2002). For example, studies such as the Great Smokey Mountains study (Costello, Angold, Burns, Erkanli, Stangel Tweed, 1996) were comparatively more comprehensive, and investigated a larger number of diagnostic categories than other studies. As a result, higher overall prevalence rates of psychological problems were reported compared to studies that did not assess as many disorders. Another sampling issue is that reviews were based on studies that differed with regard to the age range assessed some studies focus on a younger age bracket (i.e., between 8 to 11 year olds), others on an older age bracket (i.e., 11 geezerhood and older), whereas some researches included a very broad age range (i.e., 6 to 17 year olds). In addition, there were inconsistencies across studies in terms of the type of informant used some studies relied on parents only, some on children, while some combined data from parents, children as well as teachers. D ifferences in the age brackets assessed as well as the use of distinct informants may have contributed to disparities in epidemiological findings.Another salient issue with regard to categorically based epidemiological studies concerns the coordination and reading material of tuition from multiple informants. Since problem behaviours may only occur in specific situations or with specific individuals, multiple informants (e.g., teachers, parents and children) are necessary. However, since the responders context and science have a great impact on the identification of psychological problems, hapless agreement among respondents is frequently reported. For example, children normally report higher rates of internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety and depression) while parents tends to report higher rates of externalizing symptoms (e.g., Conduct Problems) (Rubio-Stipec, Fitzmaurice, Murphy, Walker, 2003). Additionally, children are not considered reliable reporters of their own behavi our due to differences in cognitive abilities as well as the ability to report their own behaviour (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). condescension such findings, the categorical approach does not provide guidelines regarding obtaining and interpretation data from multiple sources, which complicates matters in terms of how to combine data into yes-or-no decisions about divergent symptoms.The various conceptual problems associated with the DSM as well as the methodological flaws in epidemiological reviews highlight the problems associated with using the categorical approach as a basis for epidemiological studies. Moreover, these issues unders midpoint the need for an approach that is methodologically fleshy and culturally appropriate for cross-cultural comparisons. An alternative to problems linked to the categorical approach, where an a priori criterion is imposed, can be a system that is through empiric observation based and identifies problems as they occur in a population. Suc h an approach would be helpful in highlighting cultural differences in the look of divergent emotional and behavioural problems. Moreover, there is also a need for a methodology that can be employed in a regularize, dogmatic fashion. Although the empirical approach is not a panacea for problems associated with epidemiological studies, it does provide solutions to some of the types of errors in the categorical system.Empirical or dimensional approach. The empirical or dimensional approach, in treaty with a psychosocial perspective, views mental health as a continuum. The dimensional perspective supports the notion that all individuals attend problems involving behaviours, emotions and thoughts to varying extents. Those who experience such problems to an extreme extent (unusual frequency, duration, intensity, or other aspects) are more likely to have a psychological disorder (Cullinan, 2004). In contrast to imposing a priori criteria on childrens emotional and behavioural proble ms, the empirical approach identifies problems as they present themselves in the population. consort to Cullinan (2004), there are certain go twisting in developing a dimensional classification system for emotional and behavioural problems. These steps include creating a collection of items that reflect measurable problem behaviours see by children, identifying a group of children to be studied, assessing every child in the group on each problem, and investigating the data to identify items that co-vary, indeed leading(p) to the identification of disparate dimensions or factors. After the dimensions have been derived, the puss of items can be used to assess and classify emotional and behaviour problems among bracing populations. Given that the empirical approach is based on the identification of coincidering problem behaviours in the population, instead of imposing a priori criteria, it is a approving approach for cross-cultural epidemiological studies.Within empirical ap proaches, the Achenbach System of through empirical observation Based Assessment (ASEBA) provides a good framework for epidemiological studies for multiple reasons. First, cosmos empirically based, ASEBA identifies emotional and behavioural problems as they occur in the population. Second, it is based on a developmental perspective, has a uniform methodology, and also provides explicit guidelines about using data from multiple sources (Achenbach McConaughy, 1997 Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Hence it provides solutions to problems that arise in the categorical approach. Moreover, Cullinan (2004) and Krol et al. (2006) state that ASEBA measures have been used more extensively compared to other measures of emotional and behavioural problems, such as the Conners Rating Scale- revise (Conners,1990) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA).Although the ASEBA has a non-theoretical, empirical base per se, it is greatly influenced by the principles of developmental psychopathology. For example, Achenbach highlights that problems may include thoughts, behaviours, and emotions that may manifest themselves differently depending on the age and gender of the individual (Greenbaum et al., 2004). Therefore, each ASEBA form provides norms based on the age and gender of the child, which enables an individuals functioning to be assessed in comparison to same-age peers. Furthermore, ASEBA is a multiaxial system that encompasses a family of standardized instruments for the assessment of behavioural and emotional problems as well as adaptive functioning. The five axes of the assessment baffle include parent (Axis I) and teacher (Axis II) reports, cognitive (Axis III) and physical (Axis IV) assessments as well as the direct assessment of children (Axis V) (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). The use of different ASEBA instruments provides a standardized and uniform methodology to incorporate information from multiple sources.Furthermore, all ASEBA instruments are empirically based. In accordance with the empirical approach, the construction of the ASEBA forms involved a series of steps (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Initially, a collection of potential symptom behaviours (i.e., items) was derived from multiple sources. These items were operationally defined in such a mode that respondents not trained in psychological theory could use them. In accordance with general item-development procedures, pilot tests were conducted to evaluate the clarity of items, response scales and item distribution. Finally, items that could tag between individuals who were not functioning well and their well functioning same-age peers were retained. multivariate statistical analyses were applied to the retained items in order to identify syndromes of problems that co-occur. Syndromes were place purely on the basis of co-occurrence, without any link to a particular cause. Subsequently, the syndromes of co-occurring problem items were used to construct scales. These scales were used to assess individuals in order to assess the degree to which they exhibit each syndrome. Since all ASEBA instruments are empirically based, findings can be compared on the basis of the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems, thereby providing a clearer picture of cross-cultural similarities and disparities of different emotional and behavioural problems.In terms of the historical evolution of the system, ASEBA originated to provide a more differentiated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology than the DSM. When ASEBA was developed, the front closely edition of the DSM (APA, 1952) had only two categories for childhood disorders, which included adjustment reactions of childhood and schizophrenic reaction childhood type (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). In contrast to the DSM, the first ASEBA publication highlighted more syndromes of emotional and behavioural problems (APA, 1 952). Moreover, based on factor analyses, Achenbach (1966) identified two broad groupings of problems for which he coined the terms Internalizing and Externalizing. As tell apartd earlier, Internalizing Problems included problems with the ego, such as anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and bodily Complaints, without any unpatterned physical cause. On the other hand, Externalizing Problems included problems with other people, as well as problems linked to non-conformance to social norms and mores, such as aggressive and tatterdemalion behaviour. Although all ASEBA forms are used extensively in clinical and research environments, the Child Behavior Checklist is the most widely recognized measure for the assessment of emotional and behavioural problems (Greenbaum et al., 2004 Webber Plotts, 2008).Child Behavior ChecklistAn essential part and the al-Qaida of Achenbachs multiaxial, empirical system is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Although the CBCL assesses social competencie s as well as problem behaviours, it is widely recognized as a measure of emotional and behavioural problems as opposed to social competencies. In fact, researchers suggest that the CBCL is the most extensively utilized measure for the assessment of problem behaviours among children and adolescents as ascertained by their parents and caregivers (Krol et al., 2006 Greenbaum et al., 2004).Although there have been multiple revisions to the initial CBCL, all versions have the same format and consist of two distinct sections. The first section measures social competencies. Parents are asked to respond to 20 questions regarding the childs functioning in sports, discordant activities, organizations, jobs and chores, and friendships. Items also cover the childs relations with significant others, how well the child plays and workings alone, as well as his/her functioning at school. Finally, respondents describe any known illnesses or disabilities, the issues that concern them the most about the child, and the ruff things about the child (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The second section assesses problem behaviour and consists of 118 items that describe specific emotional and behavioural problems, along with two open-ended items for reporting redundant problems. Examples of problem items include acts too young for age, barbaric to animals, too fearful or anxious, and unhappy, sad or downcast. Problem behaviours are organized in a hierarchical factor building that consists of octonary correlated first-order or narrowband syndromes, two correlated second-order or broadband factors (i.e., Internalizing and Externalizing Problems) and an overall nitty-gritty Problems factor. Parents/caregivers are asked to rate the child with regard to how truthful each item is at the time of assessment or deep down the past 6 months. The following scale is used 0 = not true (as off the beaten track(predicate) as you know), 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, and 2 = very true or often true. In the case of respondents with poor reading skills, a non-clinically trained clincian can also admisnter the CBCL (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). For respondents who cannot read English but can read another language, translations are operational in over 85 languages (Berube Achenbach, 2008).Development of the CBCL.The first version of the CBCL dates venture to 1983. To date, there have been two revisions of the CBCL the first one in 1991 followed by the second in 2001, leading to considerable improvements in the measure. The main impuissance of the initial CBCL was that comparisons across different age groups and respondents were problematic since syndromes had the same label but different items across different age forms (i.e., 4 to 5, 6 to 11, 12 to 16 years) as well as across different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, teacher report form TRF, and the youth self report YSR) To rectify the problem, the 1991 version included two clean types of syndromes, the core and cross-inf ormant syndromes. lens nucleus syndromes represented items that clustered together consistently across age and gender groupings on a single instrument. Cross-informant syndromes were based on those items from the core syndromes that get along on at least two of the three different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, TRF, and YSR) (Greenbaum et al., 2004). These revisions facilitated comparisons across different age groups and informants. Moreover, the 1991 version of the CBCL also had new national level norms, which included norms for seventeen and eighteen year olds. by from concrete benefits, changes such as a broader age range and precise criteria for different developmental levels, genders and type of respondents, helped make the CBCL and ASEBA instruments more accurately typical of the developmental perspective of child psychopathology (Greenbaum et al.).Achenbach (1991) also conducted exploratory virtuoso factor analyses of the syndrome scales. Based on the loadings of differe nt syndromes, Achenbach identified ardent/Depressed, Withdrawn, and Somatic Complaints as indicators of Internalizing Problems, whereas Aggressive and Delinquent Behavior were identified as indicators of Externalizing Problems. Since Social Problems, melodic theme Problems and maintenance Problems did not load consistently on either second-order factor, they were not placed in any group (Achenbach, 1991 Greenbaum et al., 2004). Although Internalizing and Externalizing Problems identify different types of behaviour, the two categories are not mutually exclusive and may co-occur within the same individual. This is supported by research findings that indicate that there was a correlation between the two groups in both clinic-referred (.54) and non-referred (.59) samples matched on the basis of age, sex, race, and income (Achenbach, 1991).Description of the current CBCL.The current CBCL was published in 2001 and covers ages 6 to 18 years (CBCL/6-18 Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). The CBC L/6-18 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001) provides raw pull ahead, T- scores and percentiles for the following (1) the three competence scales (Activities, Social, School) (2) the Total Competence scale (3) the eight cross-informant syndromes (4) Internalizing and Externalizing Problems and (5) Total Problems. The cross-informant syndromes of the CBCL/6-18 include Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed, Attention Problems, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Social Problems, Somatic Complaints, Thought Problems, and Withdrawn/Depressed.As far as similarities and differences from previous versions are concerned, the current CBCL introduced some major and a few minor changes. One major change was the introduction of the DSM-oriented scales, based on which CBCL and other ASEBA forms can now be scored in terms of scales that are oriented toward categories of the fourth edition of the DSM (A.P.A., 1994). The introduction of the DSM-oriented scales has combined the categorical and empirical approaches and enables users to view problems in both the categorical and dimensional approaches (Achenbach, Dumenci Rescorla, 2003 Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The DSM-oriented scales include six categories, namely Affective Problems, Anxiety Problems, Somatic Problems, Attention dearth/Hyperactivity problems, Oppositional Defiant Problems as well as Conduct Problems. These scales are based on problem items that mental health experts from sixteen cultures across the world rated as being consistent with particular DSM diagnostic categories. kindred to the empirically based syndromes, the DSM- oriented scales also have age-, gender- and respondent-specific norms.Another major change was that new normative data was collected using multistage fortune sampling in forty U.S. states as well as the dominion of Columbia. The selected homes were considered to be representative of the continental United States with respect to geographical region, socio-economic status, ethnicity and urbanization (Ach enbach Rescorla, 2001). Moreover, interwoven new analyses based on new clinical and normative samples were conducted. However, the eight syndromes and Internalizing and Externalizing groupings published in 1991 were replicated with minor changes. Research findings indicated that correlations between scores on the 1991 syndromes and their 2001 counterparts ranged from .87 to 1.00 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001Analysis of the Child Behaviour ChecklistAnalysis of the Child Behaviour ChecklistChapter II Literature ReviewAs suggested in the introduction, numerous researchers have explored the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems across the globe. Researchers have also investigated correlates (e.g., age and gender) associated with emotional and behavioural problems. The psychometric properties of instruments assessing emotional and behavioural problems have also been a subject of interest. In addition, researchers have also investigated cross-cultural similarities and disparitie s among emotional and behavioural problems. The extensive literature that addresses these issues, and which also helped formulate the rationale for the current study, is presented in five sections. The first section highlights the problems associated with epidemiological studies and compares the two main approaches to epidemiological studies, namely the categorical and the empirical approach. The second section provides a detailed description of the CBCL including the evolution of the measure, its psychometric properties, its advantages and disadvantages, as well as its range of applicability. The third section provides a description of the theoretical rationale for assessing cultural similarities and disparities associated with emotional and behavioural problems. Multicultural findings based on the CBCL as well as age and gender differences associated with emotional and behavioural problems are also reported. The fourth section consists of a review of the various processes involved in assessing the psychometric properties of instruments and findings based on psychometric properties of the various translations of the CBCL. The fifth section consists of a brief cultural and socio-political description of Pakistani society followed by a description of the salient features (i.e., family, community and cultural factors) in relation to emotional and behavioural problems in Pakistani society. Finally, there is a description of the objectives of the current study.Epidemiology of Emotional and Behavioural ProblemsCurrent reviews of epidemiological studies indicate that there is a high prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents around the world (Costello et al., 2004 Hackett Hackett, 1999 Waddell et al., 2002). In one review, Costello et al. compared findings across several developed countries (including Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Germany and Australia) to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems as well as that of other psychological problems. Based on their findings, the overall prevalence rates of psychological problems among children and adolescents had a very broad range (0.1% to 42%), with varying rates for each category of disorder. Categories include disruptive behaviour disorders (i.e., conduct disorder, oppositional disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder), mood disorders (i.e., major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder), anxiety disorders (i.e., phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and post-traumatic stress disorder) as well as substance abuse and dependence. A critical examination of the studies included in the review revealed that variations in prevalence rates may be attributed to methodological flaws such as substantial disparity across studies with regard to sample size and the age range assessed. Moreover, differences across studies in terms of the measures used, the criteria employed as well as th e type of informant may also have influenced the findings.In contrast to Costello et al.s (2004) review, Waddell et al.s (2002) review was based on more stringent criteria studies based on samples of similar size and age range, as well as using similar methodology were compared. Based on Waddell et al.s review, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems varied between 10% and 20%. Although findings from both reviews vary considerably, the prevalence rates of emotional and behavioural problems across developed countries is still high and warrants serious attention. Moreover, methodological disparities across studies underscore the need for a uniform methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems.In contrast to developed countries, there are few researchers investigating prevalence rates in developing countries (e.g., Bangladesh, India, Sri lanka, Sudan, and Uganda) (Costello, 2009 Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004 Mullick Goodman, 2005 N ikapota, 1991 Prior, Virasinghe, Smart, 2005). Moreover, there is a scarcity of reviews of the existing studies. In one review, Hackett and Hackett (1999) compared results from India, Puerto Rico, Malaysia and Sudan, and the prevalence rates of psychological disorders ranged from 1% to 49%. Similar to research in developed countries, researchers attribute variations in findings to methodological problems across studies, which include an inadequate sample size, paucity of explicit and internationally accepted diagnostic criteria, as well as inconsistencies in assessment procedures (Fleitlich-Bilyk Goodman, 2004). Moreover, prevalence rates among developing countries may also partly be linked to the social, economic and medical environment. For example, lack of medical resources and awareness about psychological problems may result in parents not knowing how to seek help (Gadit, 2007). Social taboos further compound the problem, preventing people from reporting problems and deterrin g help-seeking behaviour (Samad, Hollis, Prince, Goodman, 2005). More importantly, cultural variations in the conceptualization and identification of psychological problems may result in varied reporting of symptoms (Gadit, 2007). These environmental differences and methodological inconsistencies across studies emphasize the need for a cross-culturally robust methodology to investigate the prevalence of emotional and behavioural problems.Along with methodological problems and environmental differences, emotional and behavioural problems merit investigation because they affect multiple aspects of childrens functioning such as academic performance and social adjustment (Montague et al., 2005 Nelson et al., 2004 Vitaro et al., 2005). Researchers also state that there is high comorbidity among emotional and behavioural problems, (SteinHausen, Metze, Meier, Kannenberg, 1998) which creates multiple problems for children and their caregivers. Moreover, many childhood disorders continue a nd influence functioning during adulthood. In fact, many adult disorders are now recognized as having roots in childhood vulnerabilities (Maughan Kim-Cohen, 2005 Tremblay et al., 2005). Furthermore, recognizing and treating problems early can reduce the burden of the enormous human and financial costs associated with the assessment and intervention, especially in countries where resources are scarce (Costello, Egger, Angold, 2005 James et al., 2002 Waddell et al., 2002). In addition, cross-cultural epidemiology of childrens emotional and behavioural problems may also better inform current knowledge about the characteristics, course, and correlates of such problems, which in turn provide a scientific basis for appropriate mental health planning (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007 Waddell et al.). Therefore, there is a strong need for a methodology that can be utilized for clinical as well as research purposes to assess emotional and behavioural problems among children and adolescents across cultures.Current literature indicates that there are two main approaches to investigate the epidemiology of emotional and behavioural problems, namely the categorical and the empirical approach. There are several differences in both approaches including conceptualization of psychological problems as well as the methodology employed for their assessment. Both approaches will be discussed briefly.The categorical approach. The categorical approach, based on the biomedical perspective, views psychological problems as a group of maladaptive and distressing behaviours, emotions and thoughts which are qualitatively different from the typical (Cullinan, 2004). That is, similar to medical diseases, an individual may or may not have a specific psychological disorder. Traditional epidemiological studies are based on the categorical approach as embodied in various editions of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 1980 1987 199 4 2000) and the International Classification of Diseases (WHO, 1978 1992). Examples of instruments used in traditional epidemiological studies to derive DSM diagnoses include the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC) (Costello, Edelbrock, Kalas, Kessler, Klaric, 1982) and the childrens version of the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (Kiddie-SADS) (Puig-Antich Chambers, 1978). At present, there is considerable debate about the validity of epidemiological studies based on the categorical approach. Researchers have highlighted that inconsistencies in prevalence rates may be due to conceptual and methodological issues linked with the DSM as well as methodological disparities among studies (Achenbach Rescorla, 2007 Waddell et al., 2002). Each of these factors will be discussed briefly.DSM related problems. Multiple conceptual and methodological problems are associated with the DSM. First, the DSM does not provide a methodology to operationally define diff erent psychological disorders (Widiger Clark, 2000). To operationally define DSM criteria, various diagnostic interviews such as the DISC have been developed. Unfortunately, meta-analyses indicate that the diagnoses based on the DISC and other diagnostic interviews are not in agreement with diagnoses made through comprehensive clinical interviews, which indicate that, neither diagnostic nor clinical interviews provide good validity criteria for testing DSM categories (Achenbach, 2005 Costello et al., 2005 Lewczyk et al., 2003). Second, the diagnostic categories and criteria provided in the DSM continue to change as reflected in the changes across the various editions of the DSM, namely the third edition (APA, 1980), third edition revised (APA, 1987), fourth edition (APA, 1994), and fourth edition text revised (APA, 2000), making comparisons across editions problematic (Achenbach, 2005). Third, although the current version, known as the DSM-IV-text revised (APA, 2000), aims at intro ducing cultural sensitivity in assessment and diagnoses by including an outline for cultural formulation and a glossary of culture-bound syndromes (APA., 2000, pg. 897), it does not provide criteria or guidelines regarding the use of the classification system with specific cultural groups (Paniagua, 2005). Since many of the DSM diagnostic criteria are based on Euro-American social norms, it is difficult to use the DSM criteria to identify psychopathology in individuals from other cultures.In addition, there is growing consensus among researchers that DSM categories need to be more appropriate for children and adolescents of different ages and gender (Doucette, 2002 Segal Coolidge, 2001). Turk et al. (2007) also highlight the saliency of factors such as age and gender when investigating prevalence rates. However, at present, this is not the case. Costello et al. (2005) have stated that the constant developmental changes of childhood create the need for an age- and gender- specific a pproach to epidemiology.Before incorporating a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies, it is essential to have a better understanding of developmental psychopathology. Developmental psychopathology is based on the view that problems arise from different causes, manifest themselves differently at each stage, and may have diverse outcomes. Developmental psychologists do not support a specific theory to explain all developmental issues. Instead, they try to incorporate knowledge from multiple disciplines (Cicchetti Dawson, 2002). Moreover, developmental psychopathology also includes an analysis of the existing risk and protective factors within the individual and also in his/her environment over the course of development (Cicchetti Walker, 2003).According to Costello and colleagues (2004), a developmental perspective in epidemiological studies is based on the inclusion of certain principles. First, precise assessment measures for the different phases in childhood and ad olescence are required to compare childrens functioning with that of their same-age peers. For example, problems such as fear of dark places is considered typical for 6-year-olds but not for 12-year-olds. Furthermore, the developmental perspective would include longitudinal studies to evaluate the ways in which developmental processes influence the risk of specific psychological disorders. For example, the developmental trajectory of physical aggression is such that there is an increase in Aggressive Behavior during the first few years of childhood, but it progressively decreases until adulthood (Tremblay et al., 2004). Moreover, developmental epidemiology would include frequent assessments to determine the onset of disorders. Frequent assessments would also assist in the identification of environmental and individual factors that contribute to the development of psychopathology. Although the developmental perspective emphasises the need for age- and gender-specific diagnostic crite ria, longitudinal studies as well as frequent assessments, it is difficult to incorporate this perspective in studies based on the categorical approach as it is not sensitive to developmental changes.Methodological disparities. A critical analysis of categorically based epidemiological studies reveals multiple methodological problems. These include inconsistencies in assessment and sampling procedures as well as absence of guidelines about using data from multiple sources. In terms of assessment procedures, both symptoms as well as significant impairment are required to identify children with disorders. This is corroborated by Costello et al. (2004), who report that the disparity in the prevalence rates of phobias (i.e., 0.1% to 21.9%) may be attributed to how phobias were assessed in each study, in particular, whether both symptoms (e.g., fear of open places, snakes) as well as significant functional impairment were taken into account in the identification of phobias. Waddell et al . (2002) state that the use of standardized measures has lead to an improvement in the assessment of symptoms however, problems still exist with regard to how impairment is gauged or how measures may be combined to include symptoms as well as impairment. Another problem with assessment procedures is that different interview schedules (e.g., DISC and the Kiddie-SADS) and DSM editions have been used across studies, which may have contributed to differences in prevalence rates.Incompatible sampling procedures may also have led to disparities in overall prevalence rates in categorically based epidemiological studies (Waddell et al., 2002). For example, studies such as the Great Smokey Mountains study (Costello, Angold, Burns, Erkanli, Stangel Tweed, 1996) were relatively more comprehensive, and investigated a larger number of diagnostic categories than other studies. As a result, higher overall prevalence rates of psychological problems were reported compared to studies that did not as sess as many disorders. Another sampling issue is that reviews were based on studies that differed with regard to the age range assessed some studies focused on a younger age bracket (i.e., between 8 to 11 year olds), others on an older age bracket (i.e., 11 years and older), whereas some researches included a very broad age range (i.e., 6 to 17 year olds). In addition, there were inconsistencies across studies in terms of the type of informant used some studies relied on parents only, some on children, while some combined data from parents, children as well as teachers. Differences in the age brackets assessed as well as the use of different informants may have contributed to disparities in epidemiological findings.Another salient issue with regard to categorically based epidemiological studies concerns the coordination and interpretation of information from multiple informants. Since problem behaviours may only occur in specific situations or with specific individuals, multiple in formants (e.g., teachers, parents and children) are necessary. However, since the respondents context and perception have a great impact on the identification of psychological problems, poor agreement among respondents is frequently reported. For example, children normally report higher rates of internalizing symptoms (e.g., anxiety and depression) while parents tends to report higher rates of externalizing symptoms (e.g., Conduct Problems) (Rubio-Stipec, Fitzmaurice, Murphy, Walker, 2003). Additionally, children are not considered reliable reporters of their own behaviour due to differences in cognitive abilities as well as the ability to report their own behaviour (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Despite such findings, the categorical approach does not provide guidelines regarding obtaining and interpreting data from multiple sources, which complicates matters in terms of how to combine data into yes-or-no decisions about different symptoms.The various conceptual problems associate d with the DSM as well as the methodological flaws in epidemiological reviews highlight the problems associated with using the categorical approach as a basis for epidemiological studies. Moreover, these issues underscore the need for an approach that is methodologically sound and culturally appropriate for cross-cultural comparisons. An alternative to problems linked to the categorical approach, where an a priori criterion is imposed, can be a system that is empirically based and identifies problems as they occur in a population. Such an approach would be helpful in highlighting cultural differences in the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems. Moreover, there is also a need for a methodology that can be employed in a standardized, systematic fashion. Although the empirical approach is not a panacea for problems associated with epidemiological studies, it does provide solutions to some of the types of errors in the categorical system.Empirical or dimensional approach. The empirical or dimensional approach, in accordance with a psychosocial perspective, views mental health as a continuum. The dimensional perspective supports the notion that all individuals experience problems involving behaviours, emotions and thoughts to varying extents. Those who experience such problems to an extreme extent (unusual frequency, duration, intensity, or other aspects) are more likely to have a psychological disorder (Cullinan, 2004). In contrast to imposing a priori criteria on childrens emotional and behavioural problems, the empirical approach identifies problems as they present themselves in the population. According to Cullinan (2004), there are certain steps involved in developing a dimensional classification system for emotional and behavioural problems. These steps include creating a collection of items that reflect measurable problem behaviours experienced by children, identifying a group of children to be studied, assessing every child in the g roup on each problem, and investigating the data to identify items that co-vary, thus leading to the identification of different dimensions or factors. After the dimensions have been derived, the pool of items can be used to assess and classify emotional and behaviour problems among new populations. Given that the empirical approach is based on the identification of co-occurring problem behaviours in the population, instead of imposing a priori criteria, it is a favourable approach for cross-cultural epidemiological studies.Within empirical approaches, the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (ASEBA) provides a good framework for epidemiological studies for multiple reasons. First, being empirically based, ASEBA identifies emotional and behavioural problems as they occur in the population. Second, it is based on a developmental perspective, has a uniform methodology, and also provides explicit guidelines about using data from multiple sources (Achenbach McConaughy, 1997 Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Hence it provides solutions to problems that arise in the categorical approach. Moreover, Cullinan (2004) and Krol et al. (2006) state that ASEBA measures have been used more extensively compared to other measures of emotional and behavioural problems, such as the Conners Rating Scale- Revised (Conners,1990) and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (Goodman, 1997). Achenbach system of empirically based assessment (ASEBA).Although the ASEBA has a non-theoretical, empirical base per se, it is greatly influenced by the principles of developmental psychopathology. For example, Achenbach highlights that problems may include thoughts, behaviours, and emotions that may manifest themselves differently depending on the age and gender of the individual (Greenbaum et al., 2004). Therefore, each ASEBA form provides norms based on the age and gender of the child, which enables an individuals functioning to be assessed in comparison to same-age peers. Furtherm ore, ASEBA is a multiaxial system that encompasses a family of standardized instruments for the assessment of behavioural and emotional problems as well as adaptive functioning. The five axes of the assessment model include parent (Axis I) and teacher (Axis II) reports, cognitive (Axis III) and physical (Axis IV) assessments as well as the direct assessment of children (Axis V) (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). The use of different ASEBA instruments provides a standardized and uniform methodology to incorporate information from multiple sources.Furthermore, all ASEBA instruments are empirically based. In accordance with the empirical approach, the construction of the ASEBA forms involved a series of steps (Achenbach McConaughy, 2003). Initially, a collection of potential symptom behaviours (i.e., items) was derived from multiple sources. These items were operationally defined in such a manner that respondents not trained in psychological theory could use them. In accordance with gener al item-development procedures, pilot tests were conducted to evaluate the clarity of items, response scales and item distribution. Finally, items that could differentiate between individuals who were not functioning well and their well functioning same-age peers were retained. Multivariate statistical analyses were applied to the retained items in order to identify syndromes of problems that co-occur. Syndromes were identified purely on the basis of co-occurrence, without any link to a particular cause. Subsequently, the syndromes of co-occurring problem items were used to construct scales. These scales were used to assess individuals in order to assess the degree to which they exhibit each syndrome. Since all ASEBA instruments are empirically based, findings can be compared on the basis of the manifestation of different emotional and behavioural problems, thereby providing a clearer picture of cross-cultural similarities and disparities of different emotional and behavioural probl ems.In terms of the historical evolution of the system, ASEBA originated to provide a more differentiated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology than the DSM. When ASEBA was developed, the first edition of the DSM (APA, 1952) had only two categories for childhood disorders, which included adjustment reactions of childhood and schizophrenic reaction childhood type (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). In contrast to the DSM, the first ASEBA publication highlighted more syndromes of emotional and behavioural problems (APA, 1952). Moreover, based on factor analyses, Achenbach (1966) identified two broad groupings of problems for which he coined the terms Internalizing and Externalizing. As set forth earlier, Internalizing Problems included problems with the self, such as anxiety, depression, withdrawal, and Somatic Complaints, without any apparent physical cause. On the other hand, Externalizing Problems included problems with other people, as well as problems linked to non-conform ance to social norms and mores, such as aggressive and delinquent behaviour. Although all ASEBA forms are used extensively in clinical and research environments, the Child Behavior Checklist is the most widely recognized measure for the assessment of emotional and behavioural problems (Greenbaum et al., 2004 Webber Plotts, 2008).Child Behavior ChecklistAn essential part and the cornerstone of Achenbachs multiaxial, empirical system is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Although the CBCL assesses social competencies as well as problem behaviours, it is widely recognized as a measure of emotional and behavioural problems as opposed to social competencies. In fact, researchers suggest that the CBCL is the most extensively utilized measure for the assessment of problem behaviours among children and adolescents as observed by their parents and caregivers (Krol et al., 2006 Greenbaum et al., 2004).Although there have been multiple revisions to the initial CBCL, all versions have the sa me format and consist of two distinct sections. The first section measures social competencies. Parents are asked to respond to 20 questions regarding the childs functioning in sports, miscellaneous activities, organizations, jobs and chores, and friendships. Items also cover the childs relations with significant others, how well the child plays and works alone, as well as his/her functioning at school. Finally, respondents describe any known illnesses or disabilities, the issues that concern them the most about the child, and the best things about the child (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The second section assesses problem behaviour and consists of 118 items that describe specific emotional and behavioural problems, along with two open-ended items for reporting additional problems. Examples of problem items include acts too young for age, cruel to animals, too fearful or anxious, and unhappy, sad or depressed. Problem behaviours are organized in a hierarchical factor structure that c onsists of eight correlated first-order or narrowband syndromes, two correlated second-order or broadband factors (i.e., Internalizing and Externalizing Problems) and an overall Total Problems factor. Parents/caregivers are asked to rate the child with regard to how true each item is at the time of assessment or within the past 6 months. The following scale is used 0 = not true (as far as you know), 1 = somewhat or sometimes true, and 2 = very true or often true. In the case of respondents with poor reading skills, a non-clinically trained clincian can also admisnter the CBCL (Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). For respondents who cannot read English but can read another language, translations are available in over 85 languages (Berube Achenbach, 2008).Development of the CBCL.The first version of the CBCL dates back to 1983. To date, there have been two revisions of the CBCL the first one in 1991 followed by the second in 2001, leading to considerable improvements in the measure. The main weakness of the initial CBCL was that comparisons across different age groups and respondents were problematic since syndromes had the same names but different items across different age forms (i.e., 4 to 5, 6 to 11, 12 to 16 years) as well as across different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, teacher report form TRF, and the youth self report YSR) To rectify the problem, the 1991 version included two new types of syndromes, the core and cross-informant syndromes. Core syndromes represented items that clustered together consistently across age and gender groupings on a single instrument. Cross-informant syndromes were based on those items from the core syndromes that appear on at least two of the three different respondent forms (i.e., CBCL, TRF, and YSR) (Greenbaum et al., 2004). These revisions facilitated comparisons across different age groups and informants. Moreover, the 1991 version of the CBCL also had new national level norms, which included norms for seventeen and eighteen ye ar olds. Apart from practical benefits, changes such as a broader age range and precise criteria for different developmental levels, genders and type of respondents, helped make the CBCL and ASEBA instruments more accurately representative of the developmental perspective of child psychopathology (Greenbaum et al.).Achenbach (1991) also conducted exploratory principal factor analyses of the syndrome scales. Based on the loadings of different syndromes, Achenbach identified Anxious/Depressed, Withdrawn, and Somatic Complaints as indicators of Internalizing Problems, whereas Aggressive and Delinquent Behavior were identified as indicators of Externalizing Problems. Since Social Problems, Thought Problems and Attention Problems did not load consistently on either second-order factor, they were not placed in any group (Achenbach, 1991 Greenbaum et al., 2004). Although Internalizing and Externalizing Problems identify different types of behaviour, the two categories are not mutually excl usive and may co-occur within the same individual. This is supported by research findings that indicate that there was a correlation between the two groups in both clinic-referred (.54) and non-referred (.59) samples matched on the basis of age, sex, race, and income (Achenbach, 1991).Description of the current CBCL.The current CBCL was published in 2001 and covers ages 6 to 18 years (CBCL/6-18 Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). The CBCL/6-18 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001) provides raw scores, T- scores and percentiles for the following (1) the three competence scales (Activities, Social, School) (2) the Total Competence scale (3) the eight cross-informant syndromes (4) Internalizing and Externalizing Problems and (5) Total Problems. The cross-informant syndromes of the CBCL/6-18 include Aggressive Behavior, Anxious/Depressed, Attention Problems, Rule-Breaking Behavior, Social Problems, Somatic Complaints, Thought Problems, and Withdrawn/Depressed.As far as similarities and differences from p revious versions are concerned, the current CBCL introduced some major and a few minor changes. One major change was the introduction of the DSM-oriented scales, based on which CBCL and other ASEBA forms can now be scored in terms of scales that are oriented toward categories of the fourth edition of the DSM (A.P.A., 1994). The introduction of the DSM-oriented scales has combined the categorical and empirical approaches and enables users to view problems in both the categorical and dimensional approaches (Achenbach, Dumenci Rescorla, 2003 Achenbach Rescorla, 2006). The DSM-oriented scales include six categories, namely Affective Problems, Anxiety Problems, Somatic Problems, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity problems, Oppositional Defiant Problems as well as Conduct Problems. These scales are based on problem items that mental health experts from sixteen cultures across the world rated as being consistent with particular DSM diagnostic categories. Similar to the empirically based syn dromes, the DSM- oriented scales also have age-, gender- and respondent-specific norms.Another major change was that new normative data was collected using multistage probability sampling in forty U.S. states as well as the District of Columbia. The selected homes were considered to be representative of the continental United States with respect to geographical region, socio-economic status, ethnicity and urbanization (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001). Moreover, complex new analyses based on new clinical and normative samples were conducted. However, the eight syndromes and Internalizing and Externalizing groupings published in 1991 were replicated with minor changes. Research findings indicated that correlations between scores on the 1991 syndromes and their 2001 counterparts ranged from .87 to 1.00 (Achenbach Rescorla, 2001